Introduction Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disorder characterized by reduced bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue, leading to increased bone fragility and susceptibility to fractures. It is a major public health issue, particularly in postmenopausal women and elderly men. According […]
Introduction Calcium (Ca²⁺) is an essential mineral that plays a fundamental role in numerous physiological processes, including skeletal mineralization, muscle contraction, nerve conduction, blood coagulation, and cellular signaling. The maintenance of calcium homeostasis is vital for life, and its balance depends largely […]
Introduction Vitamin D, a fat-soluble secosteroid, is one of the most crucial micronutrients for maintaining overall human health. It plays a vital role in regulating calcium and phosphorus metabolism, supporting bone mineralization, immune function, and various cellular processes. Despite being termed a […]
Introduction Nutritional deficiency refers to a state where the body lacks one or more essential nutrients required for optimal growth, metabolism, and physiological function. These nutrients include vitamins, minerals, proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Nutritional deficiencies are a major public health concern, especially […]
Introduction Fracture incidence refers to the frequency or rate at which bone fractures occur in a population over a specific period. It serves as a key indicator of skeletal health and reflects the underlying prevalence of conditions such as osteoporosis, trauma exposure, […]
Introduction Bone fragility refers to a condition in which bones become structurally weak and more susceptible to fractures, even under minimal trauma. It results from alterations in bone quantity, quality, and microarchitecture that compromise mechanical integrity. The phenomenon is particularly common in […]
Introduction The lumbar spine represents the lower segment of the vertebral column and serves as the main structural support for the upper body. It plays a crucial role in maintaining posture, enabling movement, and protecting the spinal cord and associated nerve roots. […]
Introduction Estrogen deficiency is a physiological and pathological condition characterized by a decrease in circulating estrogen levels, primarily estradiol (E2), the most potent form of estrogen. This hormonal imbalance plays a critical role in several biological processes including reproduction, bone metabolism, cardiovascular […]
Introduction Neuropsychiatric disorders represent a complex group of conditions at the intersection of neurology and psychiatry, where both neurological dysfunction and psychiatric symptoms coexist. These disorders reflect abnormalities in brain structure, function, or chemistry that manifest as cognitive, emotional, and behavioral disturbances. […]
Introduction Psychiatric genetics investigates how genetic variations influence the risk, onset, and expression of mental disorders. By integrating molecular genetics, genomics, and neuroscience, this field seeks to uncover the biological foundations of complex psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive […]