Introduction Genetic susceptibility refers to the inherent predisposition of an individual to develop certain diseases based on their genetic makeup. This concept is rooted in the understanding that variations in genes, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), mutations, or chromosomal abnormalities, can […]
Introduction Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of two or more alternative alleles or sequences at a particular locus in a population, with each variant having a frequency of at least 1%. This concept is central to understanding human genetic diversity, evolution, […]
Introduction The concept of gene–environment interaction (G×E) describes how genetic makeup and environmental exposures jointly influence human health and disease. Genes provide biological potential, while the environment determines whether and how these potentials are expressed. This interaction explains why individuals with similar […]
Introduction The INS gene, also known as the insulin gene, plays a central role in maintaining glucose homeostasis through the synthesis of insulin, a hormone essential for regulating blood sugar levels. Located on the short arm of chromosome 11 (11p15.5), the INS […]
Introduction Beta-cell destruction is a central pathogenic event in the development of diabetes mellitus, particularly in type 1 diabetes (T1D) and, to a lesser degree, in advanced type 2 diabetes (T2D). Pancreatic beta cells, located in the islets of Langerhans, are responsible […]
Introduction The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system is one of the most polymorphic genetic systems in humans, playing a central role in the regulation of immune responses. Among the HLA class II haplotypes, DR4-DQ8 (HLA-DRB104–DQA103:01–DQB1*03:02) has been identified as a major genetic […]
Introduction Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes play a pivotal role in the regulation of immune responses and susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. Among the most well-characterized HLA haplotypes, DR3-DQ2 (HLA-DRB103:01–DQA105:01–DQB1*02:01) stands out due to its strong association with a wide range of autoimmune […]
Introduction The immune system is a complex network of cells, molecules, and signaling pathways that maintain body homeostasis by defending against pathogens and abnormal cells. A properly regulated immune response protects the body, while an imbalanced one can lead to disease. Immune […]
Introduction Enteroviral infections are among the most common viral illnesses affecting humans globally, particularly in children. These infections are caused by enteroviruses, a genus within the Picornaviridae family, which includes polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses such as EV-D68 and EV-A71. Enteroviruses […]
Introduction Thyroid lymphoma is a rare but clinically significant malignancy of the thyroid gland, representing approximately 1–5% of all thyroid cancers and about 2% of all extranodal lymphomas. Unlike the more common thyroid neoplasms such as papillary or follicular carcinoma, thyroid lymphoma […]