Empagliflozin Mechanism, Clinical Applications, and Therapeutic Impact in Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease Introduction Empagliflozin is a sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor widely used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and associated cardiovascular and renal comorbidities. Marketed under the brand […]
Exploring Functional Capacity Definition, Assessment, and Clinical Relevance Introduction Functional capacity refers to an individual’s ability to perform tasks and activities that are typical in daily life. It is a key indicator of physical health, particularly in the context of chronic disease, […]
Understanding Reduced Ejection Fraction Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management Introduction Reduced ejection fraction (REF), commonly referred to as heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), is a serious and progressive condition in which the heart muscle cannot pump blood effectively. This impairment leads […]
Understanding Adverse Events Definition, Causes, Impact, and Prevention in Healthcare Introduction Adverse events (AEs) are a critical concern in healthcare systems worldwide. They refer to injuries caused by medical management rather than the underlying condition of the patient. These events may result […]
Clinical Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure A Comprehensive Overview Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome resulting from structural or functional cardiac disorders that impair the ventricle’s ability to fill with or eject blood. Despite therapeutic […]
Understanding Heart Failure Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Management Introduction Heart failure is a progressive clinical syndrome marked by the heart’s inability to pump sufficient blood to meet the body’s needs. It affects millions worldwide and remains a leading cause of morbidity and […]
The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) Score A Valuable Tool for Cognitive Screening Introduction Cognitive impairment ranges from mild disturbances in thinking to severe dementia, significantly impacting quality of life, daily functioning, and long-term health outcomes. Early detection is vital, and among the […]
The Hoehn and Yahr Scale A Clinical Tool for Staging Parkinson’s Disease Introduction The Hoehn and Yahr (H&Y) scale is one of the most widely used clinical tools to describe the progression and severity of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Introduced in 1967 by […]
Lewy Bodies Pathological Hallmarks, Mechanisms, and Clinical Implications Introduction Lewy bodies are abnormal aggregates of protein that develop inside nerve cells, primarily affecting brain regions involved in cognition, movement, and behavior. These intracellular inclusions are a key pathological hallmark of several neurodegenerative […]
Dopaminergic Neurons Structure, Function, and Role in Health and Disease Introduction Dopaminergic neurons are a subset of nerve cells that produce and release dopamine, a vital neurotransmitter implicated in motor control, motivation, reward processing, and various other neurological functions. These neurons play […]