Introduction Bone fragility refers to a condition in which bones become structurally weak and more susceptible to fractures, even under minimal trauma. It results from alterations in bone quantity, quality, and microarchitecture that compromise mechanical integrity. The phenomenon is particularly common in […]
Introduction The lumbar spine represents the lower segment of the vertebral column and serves as the main structural support for the upper body. It plays a crucial role in maintaining posture, enabling movement, and protecting the spinal cord and associated nerve roots. […]
Introduction Estrogen deficiency is a physiological and pathological condition characterized by a decrease in circulating estrogen levels, primarily estradiol (E2), the most potent form of estrogen. This hormonal imbalance plays a critical role in several biological processes including reproduction, bone metabolism, cardiovascular […]
Introduction Neuropsychiatric disorders represent a complex group of conditions at the intersection of neurology and psychiatry, where both neurological dysfunction and psychiatric symptoms coexist. These disorders reflect abnormalities in brain structure, function, or chemistry that manifest as cognitive, emotional, and behavioral disturbances. […]
Introduction Psychiatric genetics investigates how genetic variations influence the risk, onset, and expression of mental disorders. By integrating molecular genetics, genomics, and neuroscience, this field seeks to uncover the biological foundations of complex psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive […]
Introduction Neuroimaging refers to a collection of advanced techniques used to visualize the structure and function of the nervous system, particularly the brain. It plays a crucial role in understanding how the brain operates, diagnosing neurological disorders, and guiding surgical or therapeutic […]
Introduction Genetic susceptibility refers to an individual’s increased likelihood of developing a particular disease due to inherited genetic variations. These variations, often found within DNA sequences, influence how the body responds to environmental exposures, pathogens, or physiological stress. While genetics alone rarely […]
Introduction Neurodevelopment is the complex biological process through which the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, is formed and matured from embryonic stages to adulthood. This process encompasses cellular proliferation, migration, differentiation, synaptogenesis, and myelination. It establishes the […]
Introduction The human brain possesses a remarkable ability to adapt, reorganize, and strengthen its neural connections in response to experiences — a process known as synaptic plasticity. It is one of the fundamental properties of the nervous system, allowing neurons to modify […]
Introduction Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that enable communication between neurons in the brain and the nervous system. They regulate a wide range of physiological and psychological processes, including mood, cognition, movement, and autonomic function. The precise balance of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, […]