Introduction Neuropsychiatric disorders represent a complex and diverse group of conditions that affect both the brain and behavior. These disorders bridge the disciplines of neurology and psychiatry, encompassing a wide spectrum of illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, autism spectrum disorders, […]
Introduction Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have revolutionized the field of genetics by identifying genetic variations linked to complex traits and diseases. Unlike traditional candidate gene approaches, GWAS examine the entire genome to uncover single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with specific phenotypes. This […]
Introduction Oxidative stress is a biochemical state that arises when the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) exceeds the body’s antioxidant defense capacity, leading to cellular and molecular damage. It plays a central role in the pathophysiology of numerous diseases, including cancer, […]
Introduction Environmental exposure refers to the contact between humans and various physical, chemical, and biological agents present in the environment. These exposures can occur through air, water, soil, food, or direct contact and can have profound effects on human health and disease […]
Introduction The advent of multi-omics technologies has revolutionized modern biological research by enabling a holistic understanding of complex biological systems. Unlike traditional single-omics approaches that analyze only one layer of biological information—such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, or metabolomics—multi-omics integrates multiple datasets to […]
Introduction Genetic susceptibility refers to the inherent predisposition of an individual to develop certain diseases based on their genetic makeup. This concept is rooted in the understanding that variations in genes, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), mutations, or chromosomal abnormalities, can […]
Introduction Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of two or more alternative alleles or sequences at a particular locus in a population, with each variant having a frequency of at least 1%. This concept is central to understanding human genetic diversity, evolution, […]
Introduction The concept of gene–environment interaction (G×E) describes how genetic makeup and environmental exposures jointly influence human health and disease. Genes provide biological potential, while the environment determines whether and how these potentials are expressed. This interaction explains why individuals with similar […]
Introduction The INS gene, also known as the insulin gene, plays a central role in maintaining glucose homeostasis through the synthesis of insulin, a hormone essential for regulating blood sugar levels. Located on the short arm of chromosome 11 (11p15.5), the INS […]
Introduction Beta-cell destruction is a central pathogenic event in the development of diabetes mellitus, particularly in type 1 diabetes (T1D) and, to a lesser degree, in advanced type 2 diabetes (T2D). Pancreatic beta cells, located in the islets of Langerhans, are responsible […]