Introduction The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system is one of the most polymorphic genetic systems in humans, playing a central role in the regulation of immune responses. Among the HLA class II haplotypes, DR4-DQ8 (HLA-DRB104–DQA103:01–DQB1*03:02) has been identified as a major genetic […]
Introduction Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes play a pivotal role in the regulation of immune responses and susceptibility to autoimmune diseases. Among the most well-characterized HLA haplotypes, DR3-DQ2 (HLA-DRB103:01–DQA105:01–DQB1*02:01) stands out due to its strong association with a wide range of autoimmune […]
Introduction The immune system is a complex network of cells, molecules, and signaling pathways that maintain body homeostasis by defending against pathogens and abnormal cells. A properly regulated immune response protects the body, while an imbalanced one can lead to disease. Immune […]
Introduction Enteroviral infections are among the most common viral illnesses affecting humans globally, particularly in children. These infections are caused by enteroviruses, a genus within the Picornaviridae family, which includes polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses such as EV-D68 and EV-A71. Enteroviruses […]
Introduction Thyroid lymphoma is a rare but clinically significant malignancy of the thyroid gland, representing approximately 1–5% of all thyroid cancers and about 2% of all extranodal lymphomas. Unlike the more common thyroid neoplasms such as papillary or follicular carcinoma, thyroid lymphoma […]
Introduction Treatment outcomes are critical indicators of the effectiveness, safety, and overall impact of therapeutic interventions in clinical medicine. They encompass a wide range of measures, from physiological improvements to quality of life enhancements. Evaluating treatment outcomes allows clinicians, researchers, and policymakers […]
Introduction Follicular thyroid carcinoma (FTC) is the second most common type of differentiated thyroid carcinoma after papillary thyroid carcinoma, accounting for approximately 10–15% of all thyroid cancers. FTC originates from thyroid follicular epithelial cells and is characterized by the proliferation of follicle-forming […]
Introduction Hürthle cell carcinoma (HCC) is a rare subtype of thyroid carcinoma that arises from Hürthle cells, also known as oncocytic cells. These cells are characterized by abundant granular eosinophilic cytoplasm, a result of increased mitochondrial content. HCC was previously considered a […]
Introduction Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) is a rare but clinically significant malignancy of the thyroid gland, arising from the parafollicular C-cells (also known as C-cells) that produce the hormone calcitonin. Unlike papillary and follicular thyroid carcinomas, which derive from follicular epithelial cells, […]
Introduction Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is the most common type of thyroid malignancy, accounting for nearly 80–85% of all thyroid cancers. It originates from the follicular epithelial cells of the thyroid gland and is generally considered a well-differentiated carcinoma with an excellent […]