Introduction Bone fragility refers to a condition in which bones become structurally weak and more susceptible to fractures, even under minimal trauma. It results from alterations in bone quantity, quality, and microarchitecture that compromise mechanical integrity. The phenomenon is particularly common in […]
Introduction Oxidative stress is a biochemical state that arises when the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) exceeds the body’s antioxidant defense capacity, leading to cellular and molecular damage. It plays a central role in the pathophysiology of numerous diseases, including cancer, […]
Introduction The concept of gene–environment interaction (G×E) describes how genetic makeup and environmental exposures jointly influence human health and disease. Genes provide biological potential, while the environment determines whether and how these potentials are expressed. This interaction explains why individuals with similar […]
Introduction Beta-cell destruction is a central pathogenic event in the development of diabetes mellitus, particularly in type 1 diabetes (T1D) and, to a lesser degree, in advanced type 2 diabetes (T2D). Pancreatic beta cells, located in the islets of Langerhans, are responsible […]
Neurodegeneration Mechanisms, Diseases, and Therapeutic Frontiers Introduction Neurodegeneration refers to the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, including neuronal death. This process underlies a group of chronic, debilitating disorders known as neurodegenerative diseases. These conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), […]
Inflammation Introduction Inflammation is the body’s natural immune response to injury, infection, or harmful stimuli. It plays a crucial role in healing and defense against pathogens. However, chronic inflammation can contribute to various diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, and autoimmune disorders. Types […]